Women in Forest Management: A Case Study of Dharapani Women Community Forest Bharatpokhari VDC, Kaski, Nepal

Transcription

1 Women in Forest Management: A Case Study of Dharapani Women Community Forest Bharatpokhari VDC, Kaski, Nepal A Dissertation Submitted to: School of Development and Social Engineering, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences In Partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Masters in Population, Gender and Development Pokhara University Supervised by Rishikesh Pandey Submitted by: Upendra Adhikari PU Regd. No POKHARA UNIVERSITY May, 2011

2 This thesis is dedicated to my parents: My dearest father late Laxmi Nath Adhikari your guiding hands and words always guided me to study and reach at this stage of life. However, I lost you forever while doing this research. Dad, Your guiding hand on my shoulder will remain with me forever. You are always in my heart and I ll miss you. And Mother, Mrs. Sharada Adhikari, the strongest defender of My happiness.

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4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Pokhara University for providing me the opportunity, which has made me possible to study Masters Degree in Population Gender and Development. I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to lecturer Mr. Rishikesh Pandey, my thesis supervisor, who showed great interest and provided excellent guidance during the whole research and report writing period. I greatly value his advice and feedbacks throughout the research period. I am also grateful to Prof. I. P. Tiwari (Phd.), former Dean of faculty of Humanities and Social Science, for his professional support and inspiration for selecting the topic and guiding of the research methodology. Similarly, I would like to thank Mr. Ram Prasad Aryal former program coordinator, Program coordinator Mr. Arjun Kumar Thapa and Lecturer Mr. Ajay Thapa for their valuable support and making me confidence and enthusiastic to complete this thesis. I am very grateful to my colleagues Mr. Harikrishna Timilsena for his continuous support in data collection and developing this thesis and valuable inputs in development and discussion of results. A special appreciation goes to all respondents, who provided me their valuable time for interview and interaction as well as imperative information to produce this thesis. I am heartily gratified to the VDC secretary Mr. Gangadutta Poudel, chairperson of Dharapani community forest Mrs. Januka Thapa, Co chairperson Mrs. Shanti Kumari Thapa, Secretary Mrs. Kopila Thapa, Treasurer Mrs. Bandana Tulasi Thapa and other member of Executive Committee who provided me essential information and raw data about the CF. I am also appreciative to Mr. Dhan Bahadur Thapa and Mr. Mati Bahadur Thapa advisor of the community forest for providing me the important information about the CF. I extend my special thanks to the staff of DFO Kaski, FECOFUN Kaski and Nirmalpokhari Range post for their hospitality and co-operation. I also express sincere gratitude to my family for their untiring support throughout research study period. Last, but not the least, my gratefulness goes to my respected father, mother and beloved brothers for their support. Sincere gratitude also goes to all who helped and inspired me to accomplish this Herculean task.

5 Table of content Content Page Decision of Dissertation Evaluation Committee Dedication Acknowledgement I Table of Content II List of Tables V List of Figures VI List of Appendix VII Abbreviations and Acronyms VIII Nepali Word Used in the Study IX Abstract X CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Introduction Problem Statement Objectives Rational of the Study Limitations of the Study Structure of the Thesis 8 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Conceptualization Women Community Forest and Formation Process Operational Definition of Terms Used in the Study Natural Resource Management Theoretical Review Community Forest in Theory Gender Theory Feminist Theories Participatory Theory Participatory Approaches 19 II

6 2.5 Policy on Forest Management Empirical Review Conceptual Framework 24 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction Rationale of the Selection of the Study Area Research Design Universes and Sampling Source of Data Primary Data Secondary Data Triangulation of Data Unit of Analysis 34 CHAPTER IV: OUTLINE OF THE STUDY AREA Introduction Location Social Demography Demographic Structure Literacy Status Cultural Structure and Settings Religions and Rituals Followed Economic Status and Livelihood of the People Livestock Holdings and Types Firewood Consumption Pattern Outline Summing-Up 49 CHAPTER V: STATUS OF COMMUNITY FOREST Introduction Forest Benefit Sharing System CF and Local Livelihoods Fund Management Challenges in Community Forestry 56 III

7 CHAPTER VI: WOMEN S PARTICIPATION AND ITS EFFECTIVENESS Introduction User/Membership Identification Participation in forest management Participation in the Initial Stage of CF Formation Participation in Decision-Making Participation Program Implementation, Maintenance and Follow up Participation in Benefit Sharing Participation in Conflict Management Participation in Monitoring and Evaluation Rational Behind Establishing Women Managed Community Forest Summing-Up 75 CHAPTER VII: SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSION OF CF Introduction Conceptualizing the Term Rules and Customary Practices Role of Social-Cultural Factors in Participation Social and Cultural Status of CFUG Hidden Assumptions of Culture Embedded with NRM Using Local Knowledge in Persuading Users Participation Summing-Up 84 CHAPTER VIII: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Conclusion Recommendations 90 REFERENCES 92 IV

8 List of Tables 4.1 Caste/ethnic Structure Economic Status of Household Major Source of Income Livestock Holding Type Firewood Consumption Pattern Demography Users Participation at Various Stages Users Participation at Forest Management Status of CF Users by Caste/Ethnicity Role of Social-Cultural Factors Influencing Users Participation Factors Influencing Users Participation in Dharapani Women CF 84 V

9 List of Figures 2.1 Inter Relation Between Theories Used to Guide this Research Conceptual Framework Explaining Relationship between National Policy Context and Other Variables of CF Conceptual Framework: (developed form reviewed theoretical, conceptual and empirical literatures' and variables of CF) Research Design Frame Work Data Collection and Triangulation Technique Frame work Nepal Showing Kaski Showing Dharapani and Bharatpokhari VDC Literacy Status of Bharatpokhari VDC and Dharapani CF 38 VI

10 List of Appendix 1: Questionnaire for Personal Interviews 96 2: Checklist for Information Collection from Stakeholders 103 3: Checklist for FGD with Executive Committee Members and Users : Local and Scientific Name of Plant Species 105 5: Dharapani First Executive Committee Composition 106 6: Dharapani Current Executive Committee Composition 106 7: CFUG rights as per Forest Act (1993) and Forest Regulation (1995) 107 VII

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CF CFP CFR CFUG CPR DDC DFO DoF GHG FECOFUN FGD FUG EC Ha HH HMG/N INGO MFSC NGO NRM NTFP OP UG VDC Community Forestry Community Forestry Program Community Forest Resources Community Forestry Users Group Common Property Resource District Development Committee District Forest Office Department of Forest Greenhouse Gas Federation of Community Forest Users Nepal Focused Group Discussion Forest Users Group Executive Committee Hectares Household His Majesties Government of Nepal International Non-Government Organization Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation Non-Government Organization Natural Resources Management Non Timber Forest Product Operational Plan Users Group Village Development Committee VIII

12 NEPALI WORDS USED IN THE STUDY Ban: Banpale: Danda: Khet: Kulo: Khoriya: Nag Ko Than: Neuro: Pakho: Sadasaya: Sarkar: Talukdars: Thalus: Tole: Upabhokta Samiti: Forest Forest security guard Hummock (Hill) Irrigated land terrace Indigenous small inland cannel for irrigation Forest bush / shrub land for shifting cultivation Consecrated place for snake god -the Nag A kind of green vegetable found in shrubs and forest land Terraced Un-irrigated upper land area in hills Member Government Local revenue collectors/functionaries Elites Hamlet Users group IX

13 ABSTRACT The general objective of this study is to trace the status of women of Dharapani Women managed Community Forest. This study explore(s) some lessons and challenges related to participation, eco-feminism of forest and effect of patriarchal society whether; the CF fully managed by women. During the study, primary and secondary data collected by using both quantitative (applied several Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools) and qualitative methods (used questionnaires) for data collection. For the study, total 64 households (100%) interviewed. The data of the study had analyzed using both quantitative and descriptive methods. This study deduced the social and cultural veracity of rural societies and their relationships with forest and managing forest by community is a holistic strategy. Community forest resources are more complex and entangled in a society where there is a prime role of women on the protection and utilization. In the studied area women had given chance on document but not on the reality for making self decision. Some elite men still dominating women on choosing EC member, decision making in meetings and assemblies. As well as poor and dalit people have still dominated by Brahmin/chhetris, because key positions are lead by elite household till now. Women are trying to manage spare time for the well management of forest as well as betterment of their family and for their own personality development. Managing time from household works women are utilizing their leisure time for not only seasonal and off seasonal vegetable framing, taking care of children but in social and self-development works. Conflicts among user held on hierarchical and patron-client social relation, incompatibility of formal laws, conflicts of interest, protection and belief, with bad governance of CF. Majority of user are in materialistic participation, and low in realization of problem, drafting OP and constitution, which is self motivation, as well as monitoring and evaluation is also in low position. People are managing forest well but not showing eco-feminism. Users do not implement technological approaches; however, they scientifically proved, before testing the local climate and mud. X

14 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Globally forests are considered as the second most important natural resource after water. Production function of the forest enhances economic benefits for the community, while the protection and regulation functions are for ecological betterment and climate regulation respectively. Community forestry approach has initiated in Nepal since In the earlier days, it launched in the middle hills of Nepal. Due to its great success, it has effectively implemented in Tarai area too. Community forestry is the process under which there is the handover of accessible natural forest areas to near-by community who are real users of the forest resources. After handing over the community forest to community, the real users have full authority for managing (except land ownership) the overall protection and utilization of the forest. The forest area of Nepal is estimated to be about 5.8 million hectares (40 percent of the total geographical area of the country), out of which 4.2 million ha (29 percent) is forest and 1.6 million ha (10.6 percent) is shrub land (MFSC 2004). MFSC (2008) claimed that, the overall deforestation rate of Nepal is 1.7 percent, which is well above the Asian average (1 percent) and the global average (1.3 percent). Globally, deforestation results in the annual loss of 13 million ha of forests (FAO 2005), there were several sectors affected by deforestation. Forests are the key components of biodiversity that represent the foundation of ecosystems and that, through the services they provide, affect human well-being. These include provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre; regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services such as recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfilment; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling. It has estimated that one quarter of the world s poor population directly or indirectly depend on forests for their livelihoods (WB/DFID 2006). Forest commons are crucial for delivering multiple outcomes such as livelihoods, carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation (Chhatre & Agrawal 2008).

15 Therefore, it has now become an integral part for managing natural resources through the active involvement of local people. Community forestry is most successful and popular program in Nepal because people play a vital role to manage and utilize the forest resources with the great participation of all sex and caste/ethnicity. Joshi et al. (2006) claims people s participation in forest resource management and utilization with the legal status make them responsible in biodiversity conversation as well as CFUGs fund can implement in local development and income generation. GoN (1993) stated that community forest user could use forest products and income of community forest independently in the field of local development. In the name of development and income generation people used to sell timber because, there was no any boundary for cutting and selling or using timber by themselves. There were no any rules/ regulations to protect forest by deforestation or degradation of forest area. Deforestation contributes to global climate change. It is considered as the cause of about 20 percent total Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions (Adhikary & Ghimire 2003). Limiting warming to this level is likely to be critical to the protection of forests, which is considered the major natural sink for GHGs. Reducing emission from deforestation is the key to achieving such goal. People use forest resources to fulfil their daily needs of household from forest. Fodder collection is more dominant in the Mid-hills. Therefore, most of the forests in the Mid-hills are managed for fuel-wood and fodder and about 65 percent of these forests have predominantly small-sized timber (Acharya et al. 2009). Poor people heavily depend upon forest resources to fulfil their basic (subsistence) needs for fuel-wood, forage, timber, medicines etc, as they do not have own private forests or adequate agricultural land (Adhikary & Ghimire 2003). While forests are a classic example of human-ecosystem interdependence, approaches to understand the association has varied greatly over the last few decades. With changes from top-down to bottom-up approaches (Koirala, Giri & Pokharel 2008), development and Status of Community forestry Governance in Nepal, local communities have increasingly come to be considered as key stakeholders for sustainability (Agrawal & Ostrom 2001). This led to the formulation of various participatory forestry programs. 3

16 Community forestry Development Program has been recognized as one of the most successful program in Nepal making it a standing example in the Asian region. Nepal is a developing mountainous and land locked country located in south Asia bordering between the two most popular countries of the world India and china. According to the population census 2001, total population of Nepal is 2,31,51,423 and gender composition of population is 1,15,87,502 female and 1,15,63,921 male. The urban and rural population is 15.9:84.1 respectively. Especially in hills and mountains, large area of the national forest has been handed over to a large number of local people as community forests making almost over 33 percent of the country s population a member of the Community Forest User Groups (Shrestha 1999, p. 277). Community forestry in Nepal has been the most popular and successful program among the community oriented development practices never the less it has different forest management modalities. Community forestry s successfulness has unique identification at international level as well. It demonstrates that the authority used by the government is to delegate power to community, which supports to empower the local people and help to establishing system for proper management of the forest area. Both government and communities are satisfied with this policy so finally Nepal has able develop some 16,000 CFUGs. This has brought about one third of the country s forest area under Community forestry (DoF 2010). However, women s participation in overall management is poor as the total only about 5 percent (800) forest are managed by women, which have the legal rights to manage over a million hectares of forest areas. Given its history of over three decades, studies have increasingly focused on the extent to which CFUGs implement democratic practices, improve livelihood options and restore ecological benefits (Dhital 2009). 1.2 Problem Statement The primary focus of the Community forestry was on institutional strengthening, greenery maintenance, protection of forest areas, and fulfilling subsistence needs of forest products to the local people. Now, time has come to address the second-generation issues by applying scientific knowledge for sustainable forest development, maintaining good governance in CFUGs and promoting livelihoods of the local poor people. Various objective based studies, (Upadhyay 1995, Kanel & Kanel 2006 and Pokhrel et al. 2008) on Nepal's CFUG showed that, it is often observed and widely debated that in most cases, 4

17 community forest has not addressed the problems of poor and indigenous people as well as of women though much income from the sale of forest products had been generated (Dutta 2007). Stakeholder s full participation in decision-making process is in scanty status still (Koirala, Giri & Pokhrel 2008). Rich and male members of the community user groups have gained comparatively more benefits from the community forests (Yadav et al. 2003). There is some core problems of women managed community forest and problem of women where this study is rounding. Women are considered as primary users of the forest since they are involved in collecting different forest products from the forest. As a primary user, they know a lot about the uses of forest in terms of burning quality firewood, best fodder species, decomposition and quality of leaf litter, medicinal value and use of herbs, nutritional value of forest fruits, greens that men may know little. The role of women in forestry activities is very important because they are widely acknowledged as primary users of forest. In the initial stages of community forest practice in Nepal, women s participation was ignored in community forest planning cycle. This has implication on poor management of community forestry. Realizing this, gradually the community forest policies were changed and priority was given to women and their participation in community forest activities. Women s participation in CFUG can be viewed from participation and decision making in implementation of community forest activities, as well in the conservation perspective. As participation in the implementation of activities does not necessarily ensure effective participation in decision-making because effective participation requires effectively recognized people s views and taken into account on decision-making process (Agrawal & Ostrom 2001). Moreover, Upadhyay (2005) claim that while effective participation in decision-making would enable women to influence formulation of rules and regulations in their interest; however, that does not necessarily guarantee that women enjoy access to the incentives derived from FUG. As in other sectors, the forestry sector has also begun giving high priority to women s involvement through the positive discrimination policy of Nepal. Hence, women have been playing important roles in forest management. The government policy for at least 33 percent women representation in Forest Users Group Committee and more in all CFUG activities has been encouraging women s participation in forestry sector. However, 5

18 different literatures such as Buchy and Subba (2003), Ghimire (2001) and Shrestha (1999) have noted that though women were involved in community forest activities but their involvement in decision making level has so far been found to be nominal. They are either absent in FUC or their role in decision making is not influential enough. In this context, most of the studies are already conducted by Nepali and foreign researchers focused on the impact of the community forestry in broad term. There are few research studies aiming to understand women's participation in CFUG and related decisionmaking process. Increasing participation of women, poor and disadvantaged groups has been imperative and plays an important role in developing activities helps to empower these groups. Participation of these groups is ever improving, and the national data or Community forestry Division shows that women s participation is 25 percent and there are about 5 percent (800) CFUGs managed by women. Drawing on upper mentioned tribulations, this study is concerned to explore the application of incomplete participatory approaches, its aspects and problems to understand the success and failure of Community forestry. In Nepal it is generally observed that socio /economic and cognitive rather than technical factors that determine user group member s participation in community forestry. However, in the present time, socio/economic and cultural factors have very little precedence and many important aspects of user s participation remain untouched. Therefore, this research study focused to assess level of women's participation in decision-making process in all stages of community forestry such as user's identification, constitution preparation, forest operational plan preparation, protection, utilization and monitoring. Moreover, this research answers the following research questions those are never looked in community forest related researches till the dare. Research Questions i. What is the status of community forest in the study area? ii. What is the present condition of CFUG (Community forestry Users Group), committees and present participation of users in community forest resources management practices? 6

19 iii. How the functional complexities of participatory stages influence the participation of users at various stages? iv. What are the reasons of participation of women in community forest? v. How the women make decision about fund collection, mobilization membership distribution and participation on executive committee. vi. How women make decision about the major process of implementation of plans for protection, utilization, monitoring and evaluation of programs associated with community forest management 1.3 Objectives The general aim of the study is to assess women s role and responsibility in the present management regime of the community forests and produce knowledge on different aspects of the environmental justice because until now, the developmental efforts the community has not been evaluated in relation with environmental justice. Since environmental realism could create conflicts in the society and resource management endeavours thereby reducing opportunities for the sustainable management of community forests.the broad objective of the study is to trace out Women in Forest Management with specific concentration on achieving following specific objectives. The specific objectives are i. To examine the status of community forest and women. a. Forest benefits (timber distribution system, benefit and potentiality of nontimber forest resources, fodder-forage and grazing and fuel wood derived from the community forest). b. Women s participation on community forest management process (user's identification, preparation of constitution and forest operational plan, protection, utilization, monitoring and evaluation of community forest activities and their decision making roles and process, rationale behind the establishment of women managed community forest) ii. To examine the role of socio-cultural variables (culture, tradition, ethnicity, sociocultural norms and socialization process by: local knowledge, skills, talents, 7

20 generalizations, local political-economic system, hidden assumptions, and policy implications in influencing user's participation in community forestry resources management practices). 1.4 Rationale of the Study There is no doubt about the community forestry that it is significantly contributing positive impacts on gender equity, empowerment, poverty reduction, bio-diversity and forest resources management, which are greatly geared up to social change and local development. However, at individual level, household is as well as in society, status of women is still lower in Nepal. Women are just participating physically in various community forest activities and lacking influential decision-making role. Unless and until women can play the vital role for every decision-making process in all stages of community forest, it cannot be accounted as increment of women s meaningful participation or women empowerment in an authentic way (Kanel & Kanel 2006). Keeping the above mentioned facts in mind, this study intends to examine the community forest management where only women are the member. The outcomes of the study is expected to be helpful to trace out the present status of women s participation in decisionmaking process in all stages of community forestry. It will help to explore the measures to carry out in future to increase women s real participation in term of decision-making. Based on findings of this research, the CFUGs will also be able to make their activities better suited for the community forest as well as for women s empowerment. It will also be helpful to government and non-governmental organizations for formulating appropriate programs and policies to address the issues and problems associated with community forestry and women s participation. Many studies on women s participation reviewed in this research process show that the husbands and other male members discourage women because they think that women are illiterate, incapable and they cannot tell any useful thing in the meeting (Upadhyay 1995, Thapa 1999, Nepal 2007). Women who have been supported by NGOs use to take part in the meetings in a regular basis, but they also have bitter experience (Koirala, Giri & Pokhrel 2008). Men are always in majority in the meetings and they hardly appreciate the idea of women. So this study is much significant because it will go to prove that the 8

21 women also can do better than man if they are given the authority. Since the studied is fully managed by women and all members is also woman only. Moreover, it is my keen interest to conduct this study since I am interested to examine the role and effectiveness of community based resource management especially of women in community members. 1.5 Limitations of the Study This study is conducted within limited time and cost as the part of academic degree i.e., for partial fulfilment of the degree of Masters in Population, Gender and Development Program. The study focused on the women s participation in forest resource management of Dharapani Women Managed community forest of Bharatpokhari VDC, Kaski. The findings had based on the study from wards 2, 5 and 6. The finding and conclusion drawn from the study; may not be generalized exactly in the same manner for other places and context. 1.6 Structure of the Thesis This thesis has been organized into eight Chapters excluding preliminary sections and annex. The first part i.e. preliminary section this includes Title page, approval pave, acknowledgement, table of content, list of tables and figures and abstract. The acronymic used in this thesis are also listed in abbreviation section. Chapter 1 has already outlined the context of community forestry in Nepal and the importance of community forestry in relation to the people s domestic and communal needs. People are involved in utilising common property resources to maintain their livelihoods and community forestry at local level therefore involves institutionalisation processes, intervention in forest management, and support for the wider development of the community. In this chapter, research questions had defined with relating to objectives and aim as well as theme of the study. The conceptual framework for understanding the community forestry process, including the institutionalisation of FUGs, forest management processes and outcomes for the benefit of users presented in Chapter 2. The concepts and theoretical debates regarding community forestry as a whole and its three main themes have discussed. Existing literature regarding different aspects of community forestry had reviewed. This chapter discussed the existing thoughts and experience relevant to the outcomes of community 9

22 forestry. At the end of literature review section conceptual frame work is designed which shows the relation between different variables determining the status of women in CF. The research methodology chapter (Chapter 3) explains how the research was conducted and what types of tools were used to collect information to address the research objectives. The details of different secondary data collected from different sources had presented. The chapter also explains that how different participatory methods had used to collect social and forest related information. The general characteristics of each FUG and variables indicating differences between them had explained as well as the criteria for the selection of the study sites in the Bharatpokhari VDC. This chapter also introduces triangulating technique of data and the research methods used for both social and forest resource assessment and finalisation of the research methodology. In the fourth chapter researcher described over all outline of the study site and it s demographic as well as social cultural status, various rituals followed by the user of Dharapani CF, major source of income and livestock holding types, fuel consumption pattern for heating and cooking. Fifth chapter described in lengthy about the status of forest for; benefit sharing system, CF and local livelihoods, fund management and challenges of CF. Chapter six, is created for to trace out the women s participation and its effectiveness by; user/member identification, participation in; forest management, initial stage of CF formation, decision making, program implementation, benefit sharing, conflict management, monitoring and evaluation not least but in last of this chapter discussed about rational behind establishing women managed CF. In the chapter seven; social cultural practices for forest management are described by; conceptualizing the social-cultural term, rules and customary practices, role of social cultural status of CFUG, hidden assumption about social structure, using societies local knowledge about persuading user s participation. Eighth chapter has used for summing up, conclusion and recommendation drawn by the thesis. At the last part of the thesis ends with the references list and annexes. 10

23 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter covers rationale of literature review for this study. Literatures reviewed for the study are from different studies, which had been conducted regarding community forest indifferent part of Nepal. The review ranged from the native and foreign researchers efforts as well as articles published in various journals. The review work made to synchronize the objectives of this study. This helped to outline the objectives and develop guideline or the ways to the study. In general, literature review section deals mainly with theoretical and paradigm review historical background of forest management and definition of Community Forest policies in Nepal. 2.2 Conceptualization As per the meaning of Oxford dictionary conceptualization is noun of conceptualize. Meaning of conceptualize is a concept or idea of. In this research, the word conceptualization has been used for getting idea or plan especially on those theories, which are used in the research viz. women and forest Women People make society and people consist of man and women. Man and women are both active actors of the society. Although men and women have their own identity provided by the biological process or social process distinguish them through physical appearance and society expect their work be different according to the social practices. According to Stephanie Garrett, one clear difference between the sexes is that women bear children while male cannot. Males and females also differ in terms of chromosomes, hormones, brain size, and secondary sexual characteristics. The biological differences between male and female are that maleness equated with greater size, weight, and strength. At birth, the average male baby is heavier and longer than the average female baby is. Hardin, G (1968), stated in page 2-3 that, Average female brain is smaller than the average male brain. According to this analysis, male and female identity starts from the period of fertilization. Contrary to biological perspective, social perspective is different; gender is the culturally defined role expectation and behaviour of men and women. The ground of gender is sex

24 itself. Every society has assigned certain activities to perform by male or female for their livelihood. According to Beneria Lourdes- Gender may be defined as a network of beliefs, personality traits, attitudes, values, behaviours and activities differentiating women and men through a process of social construction that has a number of distinctive features. It is historical; it takes place within different macro and micro spheres, such as the state, the labour market, schools, the media, the law, family/household and interpersonal relations; it involves the ranking of traits and activities so that associated men are normally given greater value. (Bhattarai 2006, p. 14). Therefore, the gender is a set of cultural roles that men and women are to follow. Gender is a man made roles for masculine and famine, differ culture to culture and it changes from time to time. According to Bhadra (2002) studies/ researches on women often fall under two categories mainly WID and GAD. Women-in-Development (WID) Research The feminist academic discourse and practice, and the feminist research method initiated during late 1960s and 1970s are the basis for WID research. Status of Women Studies during the UN Decade for Women ( ). Emerging gender inquiries have features like questioning the myth of household head (mythical man) as the key respondent of research questioning the myth of the unitary/cooperative model of household and the Altruistic Dictator importance of same-sex enumeration especially in the area of reproductive health of women and violence against women on the contrary. Gender in Development Research as the paradigm shift from WID to GAD led to shift in research focus in the ways that: Individual/gender (with reference of inter sectionalist) group as unit of analysis rather than household or organization as a unit of analysis. Women are discriminated due to gender universally, but not all women affected in the same manner. Differences arise from structures like race, class, and caste/ethnicity, locale of residence, geo-political positioning, age and religion Community Forest and Formation Process Community forestry (CF) is a policy meant for the benefit of the poor, by bringing about social changes and establishing efficient institutions at the local level. Community forest is any situation, which intimately involves local people in forestry activity (FAO 1998). Community forest is a community oriented forest management system where local users 12

25 of the forest control, manage and utilize forest resources for their own benefits. The ultimate objective of community forest is to raise the standard of living of the local community (FAO 1992). For the success of any program, there should be well-prepared plan and strong implementation unit and strong team of monitoring and evaluation. For this, there are several levels of units working in different part of the organization for community forest. Planning on Community Forest User (CFUG) Group: The forest user groups plan the program usually in CFUG assembly. Based on the needs CFUG puts forward its plans to the concerned Range post (The Government unit of forestry sector). Range Post: After discussing, the operational plan given by CFUG it forwarded to the district level. District: After the discussion on the plan and budget for the program submitted by Range Post, DFO submits the annual programs to the District Development Projects Coordination Committee along with recommendations to the District Development Committee (DDC) the local authority. Finally, the program presented to the District Development Council for final approval. The District Development Council, with due consideration to GON directives, resources, feasibility and priority approves the annual programs. Regional: The annual programs and budget prepared and approved by the District Development Council are discussed first in pre planning workshop at the regional level and finally are presented at the regional planning workshop organized by the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. Central: After finalizing the program and budget in all five regional planning workshops, the annual programs compiled and discussed at the centre together with NARMSAP (program office, Component Support Office). The NARMSAP and Community forestry Division submit the plan and budget to NPC and Ministry of Finance (MoF). The first Women Forest Users Group was formed in Balthali V.D.C. of Kabrepalanchok district in 2046 B.S. Current data reveals that more than 800 women CGUGs are successfully running in local level (Kanel and Kanel 2006). Women represent about twenty four percent of the total members in the executive committee. Total numbers of CFUGs are 16000; about five percent of CFUGs having only women as members (DoF 13

26 2010). Women only CFUGs are well managed as compared to men CFUGs or mixed CFUGs (Kanel and Kanel 2006). However, participation status of women in CFUGs is relatively low. The concerned people, member of CFUGs (male and female), civil servant, NGO workers, and social activist indicated that the socio-cultural factors are the major influencing factors of low women participation in CFUGs Operational Definition of Terms Used in the Study Following concepts and terms are being using in this study in the mentioned meaning. Forest Constitution/Bidhan: Norms prepared by the users by following the Community Forest Act in which there is a provision of all things associated with community forest management such as role and responsibility of users as well as committee members, penalty, fund raising, use, networking. Forest Operational Plan: Forest Operational Plan is the process of forest protection, methodology of forest product extraction as per the users demand, process for monitoring and evaluation of the forest and includes the forest resource capacity with the technical support of District Forest office. Household: Households, which are members in forest user group. Community Forest User Group: A group, which includes all primary households as a forest user in community forest. Community Forest User Committee: A committee formed from users group, comprising of 7-13 members, who are playing active role to implement community forest constitution and operational plan in prescribed way. They elected from general assembly of CFUG. Common Property Resource: Naturally created property, which is common for all community people. In this study, forest is the common property. It needs to unite and cumulative efforts of every members support to promote and use of common property. Participation: An involvement of people of community and play important role and responsible for different forestry development activities. Decision-Making: The process of meaningful/active participation for developing common understanding in favour of all users and implementing the activities accordingly. 14

27 Monitoring: A process, in which role and responsibility, planned activities are examined in the sense that whether they are properly implemented or not. In broader terms, it is a process to track the whole process and activities according to plan or aim. Evaluation: A processes in which effect and impact of the planned activities are assess. It uses to give proper guidance to develop further plans and activities in favour of set/designed goal. Sustainability: A process in which there considers continuing the benefits in longer term in proper way. Development: The term development in this study refers to the management and development of Community forestry resources in the context engrained in local culture, social institutions, knowledge/cognition, values, beliefs and practices. Development also denotes advancement and growth of CF resources. Conflict: Conflict is the coercive relationship between stakeholders in Community forest resources management practice, which may occur of various reasons viz. imbalanced allocation of resources, gender disparity, caste/ethnic and economic disparities, management problems. Social, Cultural and Structural factors: These factors are associated with social realities viz. norms, values, customs, gender balance, casteism, elitism etc. The structural factor has related with the overall structure of the community and CFUG including the committee Natural Resource Management Natural resource management tasks has been shown as co-management with participatory approach, where the objective is to operate a program for rural people and communities so much as to set up a program that will be managed with them, devolving significant authority to local institutions (Uphoff 1996). At the heart of various debates concerning the proper management of natural resources management, there are differing values and interests concerning the natural environment and the proper relationship of humans to their ecological surroundings. In the context of Common Property Resource Management Perspectives (CPR) which has two major categories; Tragedy of Commons and Commons without Tragedy (Hardin 15

28 1968). Tragedy of commons based on the notion that resources held in common, as that of Community forestry is subject to massive degradation or freedom in and 'commons' brings ruins to all. The physical nature of the resources is such that controlling access by potential users may be costly, in the extreme, virtually impossible for poor and female users to be the active participant of C.F. resource management and development practices. The framework of "Commons without Tragedy" (Hardin 1968) is adapted for this study, which based on the notion that Community forestry is the collective/organizational property, thus collective interest of users governs and represent the collective interests of CFUGs. As such, social, cultural and compensating mechanism plays an effective role in the management and development of CFR. In this context, it is vital to trace how long terms benefits and mutual consent leads to the successful participation of users and the consistent success of CFUGS. Influencing factors of benefit sharing which guided through the principle of common pool of forest resources management. The national level benefits and local level benefits both shared in the community forestry through arrangement between government and community (Carlsson and Berkes, 2005). The state owns the ownership of land and the community owns the rights of resources utilization and management. Therefore, the dynamics of community forest belongs to the relationship between government and local community through the statutory arrangement and activities of forestry organizations. The provisions of governmental laws and regulations including various directives and community structure including cultural and normative values have a great affect on the activities of the community forests in benefits extraction and distribution. Paudyal (2008) has also described some influencing factors of benefit sharing in community forest. The major influencing factors are community characteristics in terms of ethnicity and wealth ranking. More homogenous communities in ethnic composition and average wealth ranking users have fewer disputes on benefit distribution and other managerial aspects. Moreover, Gurung (1996), Nigheingle (2003) and Paudyal (2008) have summarized the following criteria to assess group's effectiveness. These criteria show both social and ecological factors. Social factors: The membership and leadership has a great impact on the benefit sharing mechanism. The composition of the EC members with all ranked users and ethnic representative has a very less conflict. Social heterogeneity has more effect in the 16

29 effectiveness of community forest like, size of the group, boundaries for the resource and user households, and multiple layers of nested enterprises, conflict resolution mechanisms, user's knowledge and the behaviour of users, and the distribution of rights. Resource factors: The forest species characteristics have more influence in benefit extraction. For instance, coppice management of SAL (Shorea robusta) and (Schima- Castanopsis) forests have more product diversification to supply the demand of users. Conversely (Pinus roxburghii) has only one option of high forest management system so it depends on different factors like resource capacity and management operations (natural or manmade forests), forest characteristics and production possibilities (regeneration, pole, NTFPs), location of resource and residence of users, location of nearby forest resources. Institutional factors: The decision-making process and mechanism in operational plan and their customary arrangement of implementation measures affect community forest management. Others factors like punishment against rule breaking, existing arrangements for discussion of common problems, detected and graduated sanctions, collective choice arrangements, relationship between user groups and the state, monitoring of the resource condition, congruence between appropriation, provision rules and local conditions. Economic factors: The transparencies of fund and social development activities have a major role in management and the decision of benefit distribution. Other factors like community fund generation by selling forest products, fund management and mobilization in social development, decision-making process for allocation of fund. Moreover, socio-economic condition of users and their income sources, formation of CFUG and its institutional development, inclusion/exclusion in group may play a great role to give more attention for sustainability of community forests. In conclusion, all above criteria and factors to assess effectiveness of community forests and group have direct and indirect impact on the benefit distribution among users and other stakeholders. 2.3 Theoretical Review In this section, the community forest related theories had reviewed. As theories guides to examine the linkage between findings and theories, there are some theories discussed hence under. 17

30 2.3.1 Community Forestry in Theory As is apparent from the preceding examples of community forestry in practice, several concepts and efforts affect its implementation. Devolution or decentralization of rights, responsibilities, and authority from the state to forest communities occurs to some extent. Forest utilization can occur in an ecologically sustainable way and be compatible with biodiversity conservation. Greater local control leads to healthier forests, more ecologically sustainable forest use, and greater local control increases local community benefits associated with forests and forest management Gender Theory Gender refers to socially constructed differences and relations between men and women that vary by situation and context. Gender analysis requires going beyond statements about women and men to understand how historical, demographic, institutional, cultural, socioeconomic and ecological factors affect relations between women and men of different groups, which partly determine forms of natural resource management. Institutions are sets of formal and informal rules and norms that shape interactions of humans with others fellow human and nature. Learning processes refer to learning in a collaborative mode that incorporates analytical and social skills, including a focus on gender, along with technical information and local perspectives and knowledge. Outside and local partners work together to test, apply, and adapt emerging concepts. Livelihood systems include the strategies and practices, including natural resource management and socioeconomic forms of organization that people use to meet their basic needs in site-specific and culturally variable ways. Stakeholders are different social actors, formal or informal, who can affect, or affected by, the resource management issues at hand. Stakeholder analysis involves different levels of analysis and relationships to resources, including organizations, groups and individuals at international, national, regional and local levels, as well as different actors within local communities and domestic groups. Gender theories imply the social and cultural construction of sex, which investigated in strict opposition to any kind of naturalization. This indicates that categories of men and 18

31 women are social constructions, which formed out of norms, expectations, and laden common sense of what it means to be a man or a woman in a particular space and time (Flick 1998). While the gender approach offers the possibility to analyze the social construction of sex and the resulting similarities and differences due to such socially constructed practices, its main strength is that it seeks to uncover the power differential between them and the inequalities that the system of gender generates. Gender studies do not necessarily claim for the equal weight of both sexes (as feminism does), but examine the unequal distribution of power. There are some theories to judge the female participation in development programs, Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), Gender and Development (GAD) Feminist Theories Feminism rests on the notion of biological sex (of masculinities and femininities). Feminist theories denote a range of theories with the basic principles of Feminism, this asserts equal rights and demands legal protection for women. Feminist theory manifested in various forms (e.g. Marxist liberal, radical, social feminism) and disciplines (history, environment). Central to studying women s roles and relations with the natural environment, Eco-feminism emerged in the mid-1970s, and was the first attempt to theorize these interactions (Luitel & Timsina 2008). The themes at its core are: exploitation, domination and oppression (Sargission 2001 in Upadhyay 2008) women and nature. Eco-feminism has itself come a long way since its inception, and there is now vast diversity within the field. Diversity can broadly categorize into three positions: essentialist eco-feminism, materialistic/post-structural feminism, and colonial/third-world feminism. 2.4 Participatory Theory It is sure that "development without popular participation can be best be an incomplete affair" (King Birendra as quoted in Stiller and Yadav 1978). Sundaram (2002) claims that the participation of beneficiaries can be understood in terms of participation in decision making, implementation of development programs, monitoring and evaluation of the program and sharing the benefits of development. There exists a great importance of people's participation in any kind of project because it enriches the planning process by checking the reliability of data, ensuring commitment of the people to targeted projects, 19

32 rationalizing proposals by the agencies concerned; reducing unreasonable pressures through informal channels and finally basing the proposals on the judgment of the people affected by the program. Local people always used to be in a better position to know about their needs and prioritise and this can avoid duplication minimize delay and ensure accountability. As the result of participation, the people will be in a better position to assess their own rights and responsibilities Participatory Approaches In general, sense participation is the sum of organization, empowerment and contribution. The mechanism of participation is to organize people first, when contribution individuals bond together, their collective member can rectify the imbalance between weak and stronger. Freedom and opportunity to participate, the ability to participate, and willingness to participate are the essence to be considered while talking about participation. There are five levels of participation viz. informative, consultative, associative, administrative and influential. At informative level, only information shared, while at decisive level decisions made based on active participation. Decision-making and implementation plays most important role in Participatory theories, there are two types of approaches to control/ facilitate participation, Top-down and Button Up approaches. Key Terms and Concepts of Participatory Approach Community refers to a heterogeneous group of people who share residence in the same geographic area and access to a set of local natural resources. The degree of social cohesion and differentiation, strength of common beliefs and institutions, cultural diversity and other factors vary widely within and among communities. Community-based conservation refers to a particular form of project design and implementation that seeks to achieve social equity through community participation in natural resource management. Community-based conservation projects are distinct from strictly preservationist projects, and from those administered without community participation. Similarly, community-based strategies differ from development projects that are solely concerned with increasing productivity or income without regard to social equity or to environmental considerations. 20

33 Conservation refers to the long-term maintenance of ecosystem biodiversity through the management of multiple forms of resource use and preservation. The concept, as defined here, applies to the landscape scale (as opposed to genetic or species-level conservation), and includes the different human groups as well as the natural species that inhabit the ecosystem. Conceptualized in this manner, conservation encompasses a broad and complex range of social and ecological interactions and negotiations. Empowerment means leveling the playing field in a manner that gives equal voice to the perspectives and the priorities of less-powerful groups within the community, be they defined by class, ethnicity, migratory status, or gender. Reviewing many literatures researcher draw a framework for the assistance of this woman centred research. Some theories, which are directly, relate with the woman Neoclassical Economics (WID) and Social Economics (GID). Bottom up and top down approaches of Participatory theories. Eco-feminism and Materialistic feminism used from feminist theories. These mentioned theories made confusion on how to involve in development. WID claims women have right to manage resources which they use and GID claims every people have right to involve in social development. Bottom up and top down approaches have conflict on which is better. Figure 2.1: Interrelation Between Theories Used to Guide this Research Women in forest Resource Management [Common property resource management] Gender Theories - Neo-Classical Economics (WID) - Socialist Economics (GAD) Participatory Theories - Bottom up Approach - Top Down Feminist Theories - Eco-Feminism - Materialistic feminism Linking with forest materials with feminist theories each kinds of plants have right to grow stated eco-feminism theory where materialistic feminism claims propose less plants should cut down. This framework assists to the researcher what is going on in women managed community forest. Which theory about women, which approach and which feminist theory on natural resource management are accepted and which avoided. 21

34 2.5 Policy on Forest Management In 1957AD, the government of Nepal enacted the Private Forests Nationalization Act 1957 and nationalized all the private forests, which helped partly to break the feudal power structures. These acts transferred most of the forestland to the state under the control of the Department of Forest (DoF). The government further developed the Forest Acts (1961) to manage the forest resources in subsequent years. But due to insufficient DoF capacity of management of mid-hills forests, the government could not effectively implement the Forest Act 1961 AD, and the later on in 1967 AD Forest Protection (Special Arrangement) Act was promulgated. As a result, the deforestation rate was increased which led to lack effective regulation of forest product extraction. (Main report of GoN/DoF 2062/63) Nepal s forest policy history: Testing of private, state and community regimes Before 1957: Forest was administered as private property Up to 1846 Era of Forest conversion to agriculture land Privatization of forest by autocratic regime Period of transition to convert forest as private property to state property : Forests was controlled as state property Nationalization of private forest - Forests declared as state property State s control and command approach remained dominant Emergence of the concept of CF partnership with state and community Formalization of the current forest policy After 1991 Forests has been managed as common property (in partnership with the state) Translation of community forestry principles and policies into practice 2000 onward: Recognition of community forestry as an effective approach of resource management (Pokharel, Stadtmuller and Pfund 2005). Forestry Sector Policies Community forestry is a part of national forest handed over to a user group under specific rules and regulations for its development, conservation and utilization for collective benefits. Community forestry is thus the management, control and utilization of accessible forest resources by the local people (Forest Act 1993). 22

35 The Forestry Sector Master Plan 1990 is the principal policy document for guiding forestry development in Nepal (Shrestha 1999). The 1990, Master Plan has recommended that women should be at least one-half of the members of the users committee in the Community forestry Development Program (CFDP 2001). The directive suggests that women, as the real primary users, should be involved in the decision-making and benefitsharing mechanism (Shrestha 1999). The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MFSC) is to develop a Gender and Social Equity (GSE) vision by the year The MFSC is a gender and social equity sensitive and socially inclusive organization practicing good governance to ensure equitable access to and decision making power over forest resources and benefits of all forestry sector stakeholders (MFSC 2004). Further, Community forest development program (CFDP) guideline emphasizes on giving leadership opportunities to the women in FUG (CFDP 2001). Forestry in Three-Year Interim Plan ( ) The forestry and soil conservation sector policy in the Three year interim Plan expects to empower women and enhance their income generation through their active participation in forest user committees, especially by targeting women and dalit communities in leasehold and partnership forestry. For gender equality, the sector policy emphasizes in gender sensitization and women's leadership building to ensure access to and control over resources related to forestry and soil conservation. Furthermore, in the forestry sector; capacity building training gender concerns are planned to be incorporated enhancing the quantity and quality of gender sensitization training. 2.6 Empirical Review Forest protection and management by the local people has a long history in Nepal, although institutional arrangements for participatory forest management were not democratic and transparent in those days. In most parts of the country, the forests were under the control of the local peoples. Despite that control, local people had considered the forest was their (Ghimire 2001). According to a study conducted by Shrestha (1999) in Nuwakot, men and women do not consider women s position higher or better than men do in decision-making, self-image, and organizational capacity. Women s status is always lower than that of men. Shrestha further states that women only have access to 23

36 resources, but actual control lies with men, even the labour, which by definition belongs to the person concerned, is controlled by men which means that women can only sell their labour with the permission of men and even the income from women s labour is controlled by men. Women do not have access to and control over resources, as they do not own any property; therefore, they are not credit worthy. Food is the only area in which women have controls, mainly because they prepare and distribute it. Health, education, and training are areas to which women have access but again are controlled by men in these areas. Legally the constitution of Nepal has given women the freedom of expression and religion, freedom to own property, freedom to vote, the right to run for office, and the power to raise their children as they see fit. Unfortunately, practical application of these rights has yet to realize by Nepali women (Thapa, 1999). Hadi (2001) claims that men s outmigration can lead increasing independence to the leftbehind women. In the absence of their male guardians, women may have better access to resources. Women may also face an expanded space where they can make their own decisions, develop their own coping strategies. As per FAO (2005) participation of women in CFUG can lead to a restructuring of traditional gender roles and a modification of cultural values. It can lead to changes in the gender division of labour including a feminization of agriculture. Sometimes, the absence of their husband makes left-behind women more active in community development activities and farming. Upadhyay (2005) claims that, the basic concept of community forestry rests on the notion that, forests should manage by those people who use them. Involving the real users of forest can incorporate their knowledge into forest management and motivate to sustain conservation. Women are the primary forest users since they are responsible for collecting most of the fuel wood, fodder, leaf compost and bedding as well as controlling grazing. Being primarily involved in the collection and management of forest resources, women have developed a traditional knowledge base about the management and utilization of their forest. Such traditional knowledge can play an important role in the conservation of different species and varieties depending on their usefulness to the community. Considering women s dependence on and knowledge about forest resources, women s participation is most essential for the sustainable use of forests and the management of community forestry programs. 24

37 The concept of present study is made by the review of many literatures are mentioned above. This study done by taking one woman managed community forest. For which pertinent literature has been thoroughly reviewed, and although theoretical perspectives of Common property resources and Participatory approaches has been used for guiding this research study. It is traced that literature and works concerning in the resource utilization, participation and management in community forestry. 2.7 Conceptual Frame Work It understood that the user's identification, preparation of community forest constitution, preparation of forest operational plan, community forest utilization, community forest protection and monitoring and evaluation are major steps taken for community Forest management. Moreover, it known that both men and women are involved in these kinds community forest management. However, in the Nepalese context, with respect to cultural and social practices, men are grasping all opportunities by dominating women. Still most of the government policies are in favour of men; policies try to include the equality aspect to both women and men where as equity aspect is in shadow. Therefore, that women and poor are not able to capture these opportunities in systematic and sustainable way. However, this study has made in women managed community forest. The conceptual framework (Fig. 2.2) explains the relationship between national policy and women's participation in community forest, socio-economic context, national capital, financial capital, social/ political capital, physical capital and human capital. The figure 2.2 makes it explicit and this figure guides the present study. The asset of conceptual framework lies at the core of the women empowerment context. The framework was developed to enable information about people s assets to be presented visually, which are much important with the inter-relationships between the various assets. On the basis of different assets of framework can be drawn for different communities or social groups within women and their decision making process. Human Capital: Human capital represents the skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health that together enable people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood objectives. At a household level human capital is a factor of the amount and quality of labour available; this varies according to household size, skill levels, leadership potential and health status. 25

38 Natural Capital: Natural capital is the term used for the natural resource stocks from which resource flows and services (e.g. nutrient cycling, erosion protection) useful for livelihoods are derived. There is a wide variation in the resources that make up natural capital, from intangible public goods such as the atmosphere and biodiversity to divisible assets used directly for production (trees, land). Social capital: There is much debate about what exactly is meant by the term social capital. In the context of the women in decision making process framework it is taken to mean the social construction upon which people draw and pursuit of women s status. These are developed through; networks and connectedness, membership of more formalized group rules, norms and sanctions and relationships of trust, reciprocity and exchanges. Physical capital: Physical capital comprises the basic infrastructure and producer goods needed to support livelihoods. Infrastructure consists of changes to the physical environment that help people to meet their basic needs and to be more productive. Producer goods are the tools and equipment that people use to function more productively. The following components of infrastructure are usually essential for sustainable development: supply of food viz. affordable transport, secure shelter and buildings, adequate water supply and sanitation and access to information. Financial Capital: Financial capital denotes the financial resources that people use to achieve their livelihood objectives. The definition used here is not economically robust in that it includes flows as well as stocks and it can contribute to consumption as well as production. However, it has been adopted to try to capture an important livelihood building block, namely the availability of cash or equivalent that enables people to adopt different empowerment strategies. There are two main sources of financial capital i.e., available stocks and regular inflows of money. National policy: National policy plays vital role on every kind of development field. After reviewing literatures on community forest, national policies, Acts, Rules, Regulations and Local development organizations researcher created a framework (Fig. 2.2) which shows vertical and horizontal relationship on various contexts. Vertical relationship shows top down hierarchy and horizontal relation shows same parallel status. Increasing or decreasing of national as well as financial capital, depend upon national 26

39 policy. National, financial capital has parallel relation with community forest but it depend how CF is working, these two components effect the women s decision making power and process of forest management. Social/ political, physical, human capital are vertical relation with socio economic context which effect on the field of women empowerment in decision making and process of forest management. Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework Explaining Relationship Between National Policy Context and other Variables of CF National Policy Context Community Forest Wider socio/economic context National Capital Wild edibles Agricultural inputs Financial Capital Loans, Subsidies, Employment Social/ Political Capital Tenure security, Stability of access Physical Capital Supply of food products Human Capital Skill, education, Labour power Women Empowerment in Decision making process in Community Forest Concluding, Conceptual framework for the study had developed by adopting theories, approaches and national rules from above reviewed literatures to streamline the findings toward the proposed objectives. The conceptual framework used in the study has given below; 27

40 Figure 2.3: Conceptual framework: (developed form reviewed theoretical, conceptual and empirical literatures' variables on CF). Gender - Social and cultural construction of sex - Equal distribution of power - Gender and Social Equity Forest policy - Collective common property - Collective role and responcibility - Lofty participation - CFUG success Status of women in CF Participation - Information giving - Passive participation - Participation by consultation - Participation for material consumption - Functional participation - Interactive participation - Self mobilization Organization + Empowerment NRM - Co management by stack holder - Significant authority to local people - Value and interest on natural environment Participatory Approach Community based conservation Gender Empowerment Livelihood system Stakeholders 28

41 CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the methodology used in this study to achieve the stated objectives of the research. As per the theme of research, this study utilizes feminist methodology and field method in general however, not limited only on it. The major contents of the methodology, which used in the study, discussed here. 3.2 Rationale of the Selection of the Study Area Community forestry has been very successful especially in the middle hills in Nepal. Bharatpokhari is one of the VDC in middle hill. It is prominent in FUG context as the VDC comprises 22 FUGs. Altogether 22 FUGs are functioning in Bharatpokhari VDC, out of which 2 FUGs are managed by women. Among two women community forest, Dharapani women community forest is proposed selected for the study to meet the research objectives. Other rationales for the study area selection were as following. It represents the women managed community forest of middle hills of Nepal. The area is the familiar to the researcher (this is the second visit to the study site by the researcher). Before the visit for this study the researcher visited the site as part of the internship conducted by the University. As researcher clarified women managed forest in the place so developed the interest to conduct detail study in women managed CF from eco-feministic perspectives. The researcher knows some of the aspect of socio-cultural, economic and political situation of the place further, being nearly form the University and residential site of researcher, the project produce opportunity of low-cost field work. Moreover such type of study had not been carried out on women managed community forest in the District before. 3.3 Research Design The methods of this research are solely based on participatory approach. Consultation has carried out with CFUG members, District Forest Office and Community Based Organization as well as other Supporting Organizations related to Community forestry in

42 the research area. During the study, the descriptive as well exploratory types of research design are carefully applied. Basically, the research resembles exploratory as well as descriptive type. A case about the exercise of community forestry program in the district has been studied. A case study has been one of the most popular research designs used by the social scientist in recent decades. Likewise feminist methodology, field methods and case study methods research design are also applied in this research. The diagrammatic order of the research design of present is as follows. Figure 3.1: Research Design Frame work Selection of the study Area Questionnaire preparation and pre-testing Final data collection (Quantitative/ Qualitative) Primary Data Secondary Data - Questionnaire for interview - Information Discussion - Group discussion - Field observation - Checklist for KII - Forest operational plan of FUG - Minute book review - DFO records - Other published sources Cross check (Triangulation of data) frame work given below Data Shorting, Tabulation, Coding, both quantitative and qualitative data and analysis by using SPSS, Ms Excel and Ms word Results and discussion Conclusion and recommendation Generalization of findings 30

43 3.4 Universes and Sampling There are 64 households in this community forest. Each of the household members representing women managed community forest has been considered as the target respondent for questionnaire survey and personal interview. 3.5 Source of Data Primary and secondary data are collect using both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection. Qualitative data had collected using several tools like in-depth interview, field methods of feminist methodology and case study methods. While quantitative information collected using questionnaires survey Primary Data Case study: selected as a research strategy because it allows systematic investigation while maintaining a contextually rich understanding of a phenomenon (Yin 2003, Flyvbjerg 1997). This is the most suitable strategy for this types of study because the issue was women s participation in forest resource management. This issue could not adequately understand outside the women managed community forest context since their participation in general/ mixed CFUG shadows by male role. Case study approach, which has been widely used in exploring forest management, has demonstrated its ability to capture the complexities involved (Banerjee, Macpherson & Alavalapati 2009), so present study is case study. Field Survey (Direct observation): This type of survey is a reliable method for the primary data collection. Information collected during such observations is also useful for triangulation. In this method, the researcher directly observed a meeting of executive committee and a general assembly and could see the participation of different categories of users, transparency in information and accountability of the CFUG/C members. According to Yin (1994), carefully observing, probing and recording these meetings and assemblies provide additional information about the topics had studied. The researcher observed the forest and that was fruitful to get the figurative estimation of its resource setting. Field survey is carrying out to facilitate the data collection. From the field visit, general information of geographical area, social structure is gathered. During the field survey, the meetings with key person of user groups also conducted. 31

44 In depth Interviews: Face to face, interview encourages capturing of respondents perceptions in their own words and is a very desirable strategy in qualitative data collection (Frechtling, Sharp & Westat 1997). This type of research method guarantees a high response rate and makes it easier to explain things to respondents (Neuman 1994). Two tiers of personal interview had conducted with respondents from the CFUG by using separate set of interview schedule (see Annex 1 for used questions). Both close-ended and open-ended questions had used during the interviews. Participatory rural appraisal tools has used whenever necessary to make the process easier and more understandable. Interviewing is a way to make people talk (ask) about what they know. Neman (1994) strongly argued that, a research could carry out using four types of interviews: informal, unstructured, semi-structured and structured. As per the research objectives and research questions three set of questionnaire was prepared. Among which, in this research, questions asked with community forest user (64 question) are structured questioners. Question asked with executive committee chairperson, VDC chairperson, DFO and Renger (7 question) are semi structured. Both informal as well as unstructured questions were used at the time of both focus group discussions. Key Informant Interviews: Interviews considered as powerful ways to understand social phenomena (Fontana and Frey 1994; Flick 1998). All users of the CF user, ex- EC members, teachers, ward chairperson, elderly people and other knowledgeable person had considered as key informants. Further, informal interaction had conducted with the DFO Kaski, Ranger of the respective Range Post in order to get in-depth information of women s participation in community forest and its management. Researcher prepared checklist to explore their experiences and the changes they have observe in the community/cluster and in forest for interaction from the women s perspective. Focus Group Discussion: Focus Group Discussion (FGD) are carried out to explore the changes taking place in the role of women in decision making during the initial period of community forest development and handover process as well as at present information from discussions provided an opportunity to express and share participants views more freely (Gilmour and Fisher 1991). They are also fruitful to triangulate the reliability of results obtained from other methods. For this study, separate discussions were held with each individual groups ranged from executive committee, advisory committee, and 32

45 different wellbeing categories in the CFUG. Discussion with representative group had conducted Secondary Data Secondary data is often in the form of published data, however unpublished data such as the office records, reports, and statistics gathered or compiled by others prior to the study and for other purpose are also included (Panta and Wolf 2002). In this study, secondary data has collected from operational plan and constitution, annual audit reports, minutes and other records of the CFUG; CFUG s progress reports and other records of DFO, DDC and LFP Offices. Some of the relevant information also collected from other forest organizations within the district and the other part of the country Triangulation of Data Use of multi-methods; tools; theories; space; time for data generation to avoid bias. This study triangulates the data in following way (Fig. 3.2). Figure 3.2: Data Collection and Triangulation Technique Frame work Research Strategy Multiple Theories - Gender Theories - Participatory Theories - Feminist Theories Multiple Researches -Historical -Conceptual -Theoretical Multiple Methods - Questionnaire Survey - Individual Interview - FGD - Secondary Data Counteracting the threats to validity in each method Research Findings (Adapted from Berg 2009) 3.6 Unit of Analysis When a mass of data is collected, it is necessary to arrange them in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to organizing and tabulating data, performing statistical analysis and drawing inferences (Panta and Wolf 2002). In this 33

46 research, both qualitative and quantitative tools had used for data analysis. Information obtained during group discussions had transcribed and presented in written text. The results obtained from matrix ranking had tabulated and produced as column diagrams. Data from close-ended questions of personal interviews is analysed using computer based software SPSS and Microsoft Excel program to produce descriptive statistics in the form of line graphs and column diagrams. Data from open-ended questions had analyzed qualitatively and presented both in tabulated and textual forms. 34

47 CHAPTER IV OUTLINE OF THE STUDY AREA 4.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the profile of study area, specially the village where Dharapani Woman CFUG is located. It is accredited that geographical, economic, demographical, social, cultural aspects used to create impacts on natural resources management and development practices, so the biophysical environmental of the place is dealt here with. The map given below shows the location of Kaski district where the studied CFUG is sited in Bharatpokhari VDC: Fig. 4.1: Nepal Showing Kaski According to the Population Census of Nepal (2001), the total population of Kaski district is 3, 80,527 in 85,075 household among which male-headed household are 59,982 and female headed household, 25,093. The men population is above 48.5 percent and women are 51.5 percent. Although population is higher, their participation in forest related activities and in decision making process is lower than men. However, the trend of women participation in all activities of community forest is gradually increasing in these days. Population of Bharatpokhari the study area is 10,115, with 4,677 male and 5,438 female. Population of the ward 2, 5, 6 where the women managed community forest is situated (the study area) is 2,482, and household is 527. However, 64 household

48 and 385 populations managing the community forest studied here. It found that their presence is only physical rather than involvement in decision-making roles (due to many social constraints). Though the community forest program has been implemented since the district in 1992/93, the district records showed that the status of women compared to men in the community forest is still poor. In Kaski district, the total national forest area is 89,943 hector (44.6 percent). Until now, 16, (18.4 percent) hector natural forests are handed over to 447 CFUGs as a community forest, from which 40,017 households and 22, 0316 population are benefited. It shows that the average area of the community forest is 37 hector and average area for each household is 0.42 hector. Out of 447 Community forest, women manage fivecommunity forest and the beneficiary households are 6746 in number. The area covered by these five Community forest is hector (DFO report Kaski 2065/066). 4.2 Location of CF As study is conducted in Dharapani Women Community Forest of Bharatpokhari VDC, it lies at about 30 Km far, southeast direction from Kaski District headquarters i.e., Pokhara (Fig, 4.2). Fig. 4.2: Showing Dharapani and Bharatpokhari VDC 36